In Part II of Brian Victoria’s essay series presented by the Library of Social Science, we delve deeper into the philosophical and religious underpinnings used to justify Inoue Nissho’s determination to assassinate the individuals he—and the emperor—felt were standing in the way of the Showa Restoration.

From the zazen meditation to the absolute loyalty that demanded nothing short of complete sacrifice, Brian shows us that, under the right conditions, even Zen Buddhism can be coopted to warrant killing for an ideal. Citing Inoue’s own testimony as well as that of one of his assassins, Brian explores the mentality of those who felt they were acting in the best interests of the Japanese people as well as in accordance with the codes of the samurai and the teachings of both Zen and Neo-Confucianism.

Brian Victoria, author of Zen Terror, Zen War Stories, and Zen at War, is a well-known author specializing in Japanese  history, a career professor, and Buddhist priest of the Soto Zen sect--giving him a unique perspective on the intersection between Zen Buddhism and nationalist violence.

Brian holds a Master's in Buddhist Studies from Komazawa University in Tokyo and a PhD in Religious Studies from Temple University. His distinguished career has taken him around the world, including teaching positions in Buddhism, Japanese language and culture in the United States, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. From 2013-2015 Brian was a visiting research fellow at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies in Kyoto and is currently a Senior Research Fellow at the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. Brian Victoria's work on Japanese militarism represents the highest standard of scholarly rigor and expertise.

Zen Terror in Prewar Japan by Brian Victoria To view Brian's wikipedia page click here. Zen Terror in Prewar Japan: Portrait of an Assassin For information on ordering through Amazon, PLEASE CLICK HERE. Zen Terror in Prewar Japan completes the trilogy detailing how Zen Buddhism gave rise to terrorism. Exploring the role of Inoue Nissho - the leader of the terrorist group of right-wing ultranationalism in prewar Japan, Brian Victoria sheds light on how the dark underbelly of a religion known for its promotion of peace was used to justify violence.  REVIEWS Brian Victoria masterfully describes how peace-practicing Zen Buddhism was utilized as an ideological weapon for justifying terrorist acts in prewar Japan, fervently supporting Japan’s emperor system ideology. The book is not just an historical study but also a dire warning of the danger that, if abused, a peace-loving religion can be exploited to rationalize violence. — Yuki Tanaka, author of Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II I am delighted to draw attention to the work of Brian Victoria. His expertise in Zen Buddhism comes both from intensive study of the Japanese sources and from his many years of personal experience. In both areas he has devoted himself to finding the truth and to conveying it with unflinching honesty and lucidity. His bold statements and candid judgments are supported by unambiguous evidence and deserve to be pondered on by all who care about Buddhism and have humane values at heart. — Richard Gombrich, Boden Professor of Sanskrit Emeritus, University of Oxford

INTRODUCTION TO PART II OF THE SERIES

This essay introduces us to the surprising background of Inoue Nisshō, for not only was he an accomplished zen practitioner but he was also the former head of a band of zen-trained terrorists in 1930's japan. But how could the doctrine and practice of the zen school have made the terrorist acts of Inoue's band possible? After addressing this question, the essay looks at the significant role the three assassinations carried out by Inoue's band had in restoring political power to emperor Hirohito. 

PART II: COMPASSIONATE KILLING-ZEN TERROR 

Part I of this series introduced readers to Inoue Nisshō, the influential, live-in advisor to Konoe Fumimarō, prime minister of Japan in the months leading up to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

In addition to clearly identifying Emperor Hirohito as being in charge of Japan during the wartime era, the most surprising thing about Inoue is that he was the former head of a band of terrorists who had killed three leading Japanese politicians and corporate leaders in the spring of 1932, including then Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi. Perhaps even more surprisingly, Inoue was the Zen-trained disciple of Yamamoto Gempō, one the Rinzai Zen sect’s most prominent Zen masters.

In nearly all history books of the period, whether in Japanese or English, Inoue is described as having been affiliated with the nationalistic Nichiren sect of Buddhism. This affiliation fits in well with his role as the leader of an ultranationalist band of terrorists. However, as my book Zen Terror in Prewar Japan: Portrait of an Assassin makes clear, it was the doctrine and practice of the Zen school that made the terrorist acts of Inoue’s band possible. Why?

In the first place, following the Zen sect’s introduction to Japan from China in 1195, it became the preferred sect of the samurai class. Not only could samurai identify with the Spartan life-style of Zen monks, but, more importantly, Zen training provided them with a method of overcoming their fear of death on the battlefield. The cornerstone of Zen training is the practice of meditation, known as zazen.

Based on the fundamental Buddhist belief in the impermanent, and therefore ultimately unreal or empty nature of the "self," the samurai were taught by Zen masters like 17^th century Takuan Sōhō that “if the [Zen] spirit in which the military arts is correct, you will enjoy freedom of movement, and though thousands of the enemy appear, you will be able to force them to submit with only one sword. This is [the meaning of] great loyalty.”

Teachings like these would exert a deep influence on both the samurai and the modern Japanese Imperial military, especially its officer class who regarded themselves as the descendants of the samurai. Why? Because the practice of introspective Zen meditation made it possible for them to free themselves from attachment to their ultimately non-existent selves and, in turn, give themselves in complete and unquestioning loyalty to their superiors, feudal lords in medieval Japan and the emperor in modern Japan.

During WW II, Lt. Col. Sugimoto Gorō, widely celebrated as a “god of war” (J. gunshin), wrote: “Through my practice of Zen I am able to get rid of my ego. In facilitating the accomplishment of this, Zen becomes, as it is, the true spirit of the imperial military.”

Needless to say, Takuan’s promise of Zen practice facilitating the overcoming of thousands of the enemy would be attractive to any warrior. Yet, readers familiar with Buddhism will recognize that the founder, Shakyamuni Buddha, never taught his followers to give unquestioning loyalty to their superiors. This was a teaching that had developed as a result of the Japanese Zen school’s wholesale adoption of neo-Confucian social ethics in the medieval era.

Not only did the Zen school effectively abandon Buddhist ethics, but Zen priests became the primary promulgators of neo-Confucianism--with its emphasis on loyalty unto death. The abandonment of Buddhist ethics, coupled with an ultimately unreal ego, also allowed the famous expositor of Zen, D.T. Suzuki, to write in 1938: “Without the sense of an ego, there is no moral responsibility, but the divine transcends morality.”

But what did Zen-promoted loyalty have to do with terrorism? The answer is everything because Inoue and his Zen-trained band were dedicated to something called the “Shōwa Restoration.” Although its calls for social reform were fuzzy, its main goal was clear--the restoration of complete political power to Emperor Hirohito, the alleged divine father of the nation.

Due to the physical and mental incapacitation of his father, Emperor Taishō, the youthful Hirohito had witnessed imperial power increasingly weakened due to the growth of liberal democracy, including universal male suffrage, collectively known as Taishō democracy (1912-1923).

Inoue and his terrorist band worked to destroy Taishō democracy, for they regarded it as composed of corrupt politicians colluding with rich corporate leaders who, in the wake of the Great Depression, showed little concern for the well-being of ordinary Japanese workers, farmers and unemployed. “Kill one that many may live” was the Buddhist-influenced slogan of Inoue’s band. Inoue instructed his band members as follows:

Revolution employs compassion on behalf of the society of the nation. Therefore those who wish to participate in revolution must have a mind of great compassion towards the society of the nation. In light of this there must be no thought of reward for participating in revolution. A revolution that does not encompass a mind of great compassion is not Buddhist. That is to say, revolution itself is the mind of great compassion.

As for the role Zen played in his thought, Inoue testified at his trial:

I reached where I am today thanks to Zen. Zen dislikes talking theory so I can’t put it into words, but it is true nonetheless....I have no systematized ideas. I transcend reason and act completely upon intuition.               

Onuma Shō, one of the terrorist assassins, explained the role Zen meditation (zazen) played in his preparations:

After starting my practice of zazen I entered a state of samādhi [mental concentration] the likes of which I had never experienced before. I felt my spirit become unified, really unified, and when I opened my eyes from their half-closed meditative position I noticed the smoke from the incense curling up and touching the ceiling. At this point it suddenly came to me, I would be able to carry out [the assassination] that night.”(i.e. February 9, 1932).

Onuma also testified on the importance of self-sacrifice:

Our goal was not to harm others but to destroy ourselves. We had no thought of simply killing others while surviving ourselves. We intended to smash ourselves, thereby allowing others to cross over [to a new society] on top of our own bodies.

 I think this is what our master Inoue meant when he told us that our goal was not to sacrifice personal affections on the altar of justice but to destroy ourselves. In the process of destroying ourselves it couldn’t be helped if there were [other] victims. This was the fundamental principle of our revolution. A mind of great compassion was the fundamental spirit of our revolution.

The assassinations had the desired effect, eliminating political party-based cabinets and effectively ending Taishō democracy. From that time through the end of WWII the emperor and his close advisors would appoint, and remove, successive prime ministers as they (not the military) saw fit. Whether Emperor Hirohito directly or indirectly influenced or supported Inoue and his band’s actions is unknown.

But there can be no doubt that Hirohito and his advisors were beneficiaries of the assassinations, for they were able to use them as a pretext, or excuse, for ending party-based cabinets in the name of restoring social stability. This may help to explain how it came to pass that Inoue, originally sentenced to life imprisonment in 1934, was not only released from prison in 1940 but had his entire conviction erased from the judicial record. Not only that, Inoue was then hired by Prime Minister Konoe as his live-in confidant. The “non-attachment to self” so beloved in Zen clearly had its rewards.